Of Man’s First Disobedience, and the Fruit

Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tast

Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,

With loss of Eden, till one greater Man

Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat…

 

When John Milton penned these opening lines to Paradise Lost, he was already an accomplished writer who was well-known throughout England for his religious, social, and political tracts. The Reason of Church-Government (1642), The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (1644), Areopagitica (1644), and A Treatise of Civil Power (1659) were just some of a number of tracts that gave Milton much notoriety as a man of strong convictions. His early poems, which included sonnets and elegies and notable works such as L’Allegro and Il Penseroso, Comus, and “Lycidas,” showed him to be a man of classical learning and poetic ambitions. As a fledgling poet, Milton aspired to one day write a great poem that would equal if not surpass the great poems of antiquity that he closely studied and long admired. It would be a poem elevated in language, noble in theme, and lofty in thought; and it would be composed in his mother dialect and bring literary renown to his native country—an epic that would do for England what Homer’s Odyssey did for Greece, Virgil’s Aeneid did for Rome, and Dante’s The Divine Comedy did for modern Italy.

Paradise Lost is the fruition of that aspiration and represents one of the greatest epic poems in world literature. The poem retells the story of Lucifer’s fall from heaven and the fall of Adam and Eve from grace. Like epics before it, Paradise Lost recounts great battles, perilous journeys, and heroic deeds, but it also delves into theological and philosophical issues concerning free will, predestination, and the Trinity. It explores the moral problems of divine justice and seeks to “justifie the ways of God to men” in the story of Adam and Eve.

Milton was well aware of the great responsibility he had when he composed Paradise Lost. He understood the cultural and literary value epics have not only to the country they originated from but also to human history. The epic tradition has been a part of many different cultures throughout human civilization. Epics do more than just tell a story that pleases the imagination, they carry a culture’s history, values, beliefs, and traditions from one generation to the next. Their stories of the natural and supernatural reflect our need to understand who we are and where we come from. Epics are a bridge from the past to the future and between the human and the divine.

If you love long narrative poems or stories in prose that transport you to another world with their fantastical adventures, larger-than-life heroes and heroines, and tales of gods and monsters, then check out some of these epics from around the world to read!

 

Paradise Lost by John Milton

Paradise Lost pays homage to the epics of antiquity, particularly those from ancient Greece and Rome. The start of the poem begins in Hell where we’re introduced to Satan and a host of rebel angels. He almost comes across as a sympathetic character as we hear his history and grievances. His journey from the netherworld to earth (or paradise) where lives God’s creations is fraught with danger and obstacles; however, it’s secondary to the journey that Adam and Eve would make from original sin to redemption then finally to salvation. Once on earth, he deceives Eve who then convinces Adam to eat from the tree of Forbidden Knowledge, thus leading to their fall from grace. The poem is not so much a religious story as it’s a human story. If you’re not too familiar with Milton, Paradise Lost may be a challenge to read with its elevated language and many classical and biblical allusions and references. But if you enjoyed epics like the Odyssey and Aeneid and appreciate the English language, then this epic is well worth the read and struggle.

Beowulf by anonymous

Beowulf is an Old English heroic poem that isn’t an epic in the classical sense, but it does have monsters, a larger-than-life hero, great battles, and a quest for glory. Its authorship is unknown and probably to this day, scholars are still debating whether it’s a Christian poem with pagan influences or a pagan poem with Christian influences, or possibly originally a pagan poem that was Christianized when monk scribes wrote down this epic tale. In any case, this story is about a hero named Beowulf who goes to Denmark at the request of King Hrothgar to help the Danes get rid of a monster named Grendel. He mortally wounds him by ripping his arm off, and soon Beowulf finds himself fighting Grendel’s mother who has come to avenge her son. He kills her too. The epic ends with a final battle between him and a dragon, which he slays but in doing so is fatally wounded. Beowulf is an exemplar of Anglo-Saxon literature that reads with the cadence of oral storytelling. Its themes of heroism, mortality, and the battle between good and evil capture the essence of the fighting spirit of a warrior culture.

The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri

Italy is famous for many things that include food, art, architecture, and of course its iconic cars that came about in the 20th century. But it’s also known for literature, and no individual in its long history has given the country more literary prestige than the writer simply known as Dante. The Divine Comedy is his magnum opus, a long narrative poem that recounts a twisted journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven. In the tradition of the dream vision genre, the story begins with the poet falling asleep only to awake in a dream where he meets the Roman poet Virgil who will be his guide through the realm of the dead and parts of purgatory. As he ascends toward Heaven, he is met by a new guide named Beatrice who accompanies him in the realm of the saved. From darkness and sin to light and grace, the poem ends happily for the poet, and hence the “comedy” in its title. One thing to note is that Dante was as much a political scholar as he was a writer, and he had made a lot of enemies in his lifetime. La Divina Commedia (in Italian) was written while he was in exile, and the poem in many ways was an excoriation of people who had wronged him and a critique of the socio-political landscape of his time. But foremost, The Divine Comedy is an exploration of the afterlife and represents the best of medieval allegory about human fallacy and divine grace.

The Odyssey by Homer

When we talk about the Western epic tradition, we think of Greece and Rome being its birthplace where the Iliad, Odyssey, and the Aeneid originated. These works are foundational to the epics that came much later in Italy, England, and other European countries. The Odyssey is one of the great epics from ancient Greece that have shaped Western literature and culture. It tells of the return of Odysseus to his home of Ithaca after the Trojan War, which is a key event mentioned in the Iliad—also authored by Homer. The harrowing journey home he and his men undertook is filled with danger and many obstacles; and in the style of great storytelling, Odysseus recounts how he was imprisoned by the nymph Calypso, how his men were turned into pigs by the sorceress Circe, how he blinded the man-eating cyclops, and how they escaped from the sirens’ call. Either through divine intervention or sheer cunning, they were able to get out of these difficult situations. When he arrives home ten years later after setting off, he learns that his wife, Penelope, was being harassed by suitors. And it’s toward the end of the poem that the “John Wick” action scenes begin! If you’ve read enough epics, you might notice a common theme of love and war that many of them have—and you might also notice that underneath all the battle stories is a tender love story. Such as is the case with the Odyssey.

Ramayana by Valmiki

Considered to be one of the great epics from India, Ramayana is a Hindu poem about the divine Rama and his quest to rescue his wife, Sita. It’s very much a love story that carries the theme of loyalty and faith, but it’s also a morality and cautionary tale that reminds readers of individual duty and moral responsibility and the consequences of hubris (a concept that we see in other epics such as the Iliad, Odyssey, and Beowulf). In the story, Rama is banished for fourteen years to wander the forest. Sita and his half-brother go into exile with him out of love and loyalty. One day, Sita is abducted by the demon-king Ravana who desired her. When Rama found out, he and Lakshmana set out on an adventurous quest to save her. Like Paradise Lost, Ramayana is an epic that gives a dramatic portrayal of the cosmic battle between good and evil. It’s infused with the teachings of Hindu sages that in many ways serve as a deep exploration of dharma, which refers to an individual’s moral responsibilities, sense of duty, and ethical conduct—concepts that continue to resonate with modern readers today.

Gassire’s Lute by Alta Jablow

I first read this West African epic in college, and I remember enjoying it immensely for its profound storytelling and sense of humanity it conveyed. It’s a short epic that illustrates the rich history and culture of the Soninke people. The poem tells the story of a prince who was eager to take over his father’s kingdom and wished that his death would come soon. He sought out the wisest man in the kingdom to ask when his father would die so that he could be king. The wise man told him that his path is not to be a king but rather his destiny is to play the lute. Gassire was angry at hearing this prophecy because he had always seen himself as a warrior and the rightful heir to his father’s kingdom. One night he plucked the lute that he had and a beautiful sound came out. It was a battle song for his dead sons and his recently deceased father. He realized that the wise man was right. He renounced his nobility and became the first diari, or bard, to his people. For those not too familiar with African literature, Gassire’s Lute might be a nice introduction to the oral and written tradition of Africa, particularly West Africa.

Gilgamesh by anonymous

Gilgamesh is one of those literary works that one is introduced to in a world history class in middle or junior high school. That’s how I came to hear about this ancient epic while learning about Mesopotamia, which is where Gilgamesh originated. Written on clay tablets around 2100 BCE (could be earlier or a bit later), this Babylonian poem is one of the oldest recorded stories. It’s about a demigod named Gilgamesh, ruler of Uruk, who was a wise king but a cruel despot who oppressed his subjects. When they appealed to the gods for help, they were sent a wild man named Enkidu to keep him in check. However, in a strange twist of fate the two became friends after Gilgamesh beat Enkidu in a test of strength. They then go on adventures where they killed the guardian of the Cedar Forest and then cut down the sacred tree. When the Bull of Heaven was sent down to punish Gilgamesh, it too was killed. Finally the gods decided to kill Enkidu as punishment. His death affected Gilgamesh so much that he embarked on a journey to seek eternal life but ultimately came to accept his mortality. Gilgamesh embodies a nation and its history, values, beliefs, and traditions. The fact that it was composed nearly 4,000 years ago gives it the distinction of being the oldest surviving literary work; it may very well be the first epic poem from which the epic tradition developed.

The Song of Roland by anonymous (e-book)

I would be remiss if I didn’t include a chanson de geste, which, for those who know French literature, is a narrative poem in the epic genre that was popular in France during the 11th through the 13th century. It basically translates to “song of heroic deeds” and is usually about the military exploits and valor of Charlemagne and his soldiers. The Song of Roland is one of the oldest and the most well-known examples of this literary form. It commemorates the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in which the Frankish army was ambushed by the native Basques in Spain in 778. But the story in the poem is very fictionalized. It centers on Roland, a knight and nephew of the king, who is betrayed by his stepfather, Ganelon, after he is nominated to deliver a message to the Saracens to talk peace. He thinks he is being set up to be killed and so tells them how to ambush the rear guard led by Roland. With this information, the Saracens attack the Frankish army at a mountain pass and overwhelm them. As they get slaughtered, Roland is urged to blow his oliphant (a horn made from an elephant’s tusk) to summon help. He’s hesitant at first but finally relents and blows with all his might until he is slain. If you enjoy the English tales of chivalry and King Arthur and his knights, then The Song of Roland might be one to add to your medieval reading list.

The Tale of the Heike by anonymous

The medieval world was not a peaceful place. There was constant warfare between nations, tribes, and clans. Battles inspired stories of heroism, honor, and dignified deaths that were later written down for posterity. The Tale of the Heike or Heike monogatari is a medieval Japanese epic that was compiled from various tales and written down around 1240. It’s a work of historical fiction that chronicles the feud between the Taira (Heike) and Minamoto (Genji) families. Known as the Genpei War, this civil conflict marked the tragic downfall of the Heike clan and the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate. The epic covers the heroic exploits of Minamoto Yoshitsune who is the hero of the story and offers an insight into the world of the aristocratic Samurai warrior class. Often referred to as the Japanese Iliad, The Tale of the Heike has an esteemed place in Japan’s literary history and its influence can be seen not only in modern Japanese literature but also in anime, manga, and in Japanese pop culture in general.

The Nibelungenlied by anonymous

Meaning the “song of the Nibelungs,” The Nibelungenlied is a German epic poem about love, betrayal, honor, and revenge. It was written around 1200, but it’s believed to have been based on heroic legends and historic events passed down through the oral tradition. Like Beowulf and other Germanic literature from 450 to 1066 or thereabouts, it’s a story heavily influenced by the warrior ethos of loyalty, honor, and vengeance. The poem is in two parts with the first recounting Prince Siegfried asking King Gunther for the hand of his sister, the princess Kriemhild. He agrees if Siegfried can get Queen Brunhild to marry the king. He said it’s a deal and both men marry the woman they love. However, it turns out Brunhild and Kriemhild hate each other and their rivalry leads to Siegfried’s death by Gunther and his half-brother, Hagen. In part two, Kriemhild marries Etzel (Atilla), king of the Huns, with the sole purpose of avenging her husband’s murder. She invites her brother and his court to Etzel’s kingdom where she kills Gunther and Hagen and she in turn is killed. The Nibelungenlied isn’t a romantic story, but it’s one about love and one woman’s desire for vengeance that’s driven by the loss of her husband—and perhaps there’s something romantic about that!